Indian Rupee - Reserve Bank Of India Exchange Rate

The Indian rupee (symbol: INR; ISO code: INR) (Unicode U+20B9) is the official currency of the Republic of India. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India.

The modern rupee is subdivided into 100 paise (singular paisa), though as of 2011 only 50 paise coins are legal tender. Banknotes in circulation come in denominations of INR1, INR2, INR5, INR10, INR20, INR50, INR100, INR500 and INR1000. Rupee coins are available in denominations of INR1, INR2, INR5, INR10, INR20, INR25, INR50, INR100, INR500 and INR1000; the coins for INR20 and above are for commemorative purposes only; the only other rupee coin has a nominal value of 50 paise, since lower denominations have been officially withdrawn.

The Indian rupee symbol 'INR' (officially adopted in 2010) is derived from the Devanagari consonant "?" (ra) and the Latin letter "R". The first series of coins with the rupee symbol was launched on 8 July 2011.

The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in currency management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. Recently RBI launched a website Paisa Bolta Hai to raise awareness of counterfeit currency among users of the INR.

Etymology

The word "rupee" was derived from the Sanskrit word ???????? (r?pyakam).

1. Assamese: ??? (?ôk?)
2. Bengali: ???? (??k?)
3. Bhojpuri: ????? (rupay?)
4. Gujarati: ?????? (rupiyo)
5. Hindi: ????? (rupay?)
6. Kannada: ?????? (r?p?yi)
7. Kashmiri: ???? (ropyih)
8. Konkani: ????? (rupay?)
9. Malayalam: ??? (r?p?)
10. Marathi: ????? (rupay?)
11. Nepali: ??????? (rupaiyã)
12. Oriya: ????? (?a?k?)
13. Punjabi: ????? (rupi?)
14. Rajasthani: ?????? (ripy?)
15. Sanskrit: ???????? (r?pyakam)
16. Santali: ???? (??k?)
17. Sindhi: ??????? (rupiyo)
18. Tamil: ?????? (r?p?y)
19. Telugu: ?????? (r?p?yi)
20. Urdu: ?????? (rupay?)

However, in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura and Odisha, the Indian rupee is officially known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ???? (?a?ka), which means "money". Thus, the rupee is called ??? (?ôk?) in Assamese, ???? (??k?) in Bengali and ????? (?a?k?) in Oriya. The amount (and the word "rupee") is, accordingly, written on the front of Indian banknotes in English and Hindi, whilst on the back the name is listed, in English alphabetical order, in 15 other Indian languages

Design

The sign (INR) is a combination of the Devanagari letter "?" (ra) and the Latin capital letter "R" without its vertical bar (similar to the R rotunda). The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag. and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity. It was designed by Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam, at the Industrial Design Centre at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.

Numeral system

The Indian numeral system is based on the decimal system, with two notable differences from Western systems using long and short scales. The system is ingrained in everyday monetary transactions in the Indian subcontinent.

• Note that in practice, use of arab, kharab, neel, padam and shankh is rare. In modern usage, 1 arab would be 100 crores.

History

Indian Rupee

Historically, the rupee (derived from the Sanskrit word raupya), was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century, when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold, devaluing India's standard currency. This event was known as "the fall of the rupee."

The history of the Indian rupee traces back to Ancient India in circa 6th century BCE, ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters.

The Hindi word rupaya is derived from Sanskrit word r?pya, which means "wrought silver, a coin of silver", in origin an adjective meaning "shapely", with a more specific meaning of "stamped, impressed", whence "coin". It is derived from the noun r?pa "shape, likeness, image". The word r?pa is being further identified as having sprung from the Dravidian ".

Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c 340-290 BCE), mentions silver coins as r?pyarupa, other types of coins including gold coins (Suvar?ar?pa), copper coins (T?mrar?pa) and lead coins (S?sar?pa) are also mentioned. R?pa means form or shape, example, R?pyar?pa, r?pya -- wrought silver, r?pa -- form.

During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Afghan king Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, which was termed the Rupiya. The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include; the Bank of Hindustan (1770-1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773-75, established by Warren Hastings), and the Bengal Bank (1784-91).

India was unaffected by the imperial order-in-council of 1825, which attempted to introduce British sterling coinage to the British colonies. British India, at that time, was controlled by the British East India Company. The silver rupee continued as the currency of India through the British Raj and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a mono-metallic silver standard based on the rupee; this decision was influenced by a letter written by Lord Liverpool in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.

Following the Indian Mutiny in 1857, the British government took direct control of British India. Since 1851, gold sovereigns were produced en masse at the Royal Mint in Sydney, New South Wales. In an 1864 attempt to make the British gold sovereign the "imperial coin", the treasuries in Bombay and Calcutta were instructed to receive gold sovereigns; however, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound sterling, it realised for the same reason it could not replace the silver dollar in the Straits Settlements with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired).

Since the silver crisis of 1873, a number of nations adopted the gold standard; however, India remained on the silver standard until it was replaced by a basket of commodities and currencies in the late 20th century.

The Indian rupee replaced the Danish Indian rupee in 1845, the French Indian rupee in 1954 and the Portuguese Indian escudo in 1961. Following the independence of British India in 1947 and the accession of the princely states to the new Union, the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the Hyderabadi rupee was not demonetised until 1959). Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the Travancore rupee). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the Kutch kori) had different values.

The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during British rule (and in the first decade of independence) were:

• 1 rupee = 16 anna (later 100 naye paise)
• 1 ardharupee = 8 anna, or 1/2 rupee (later 50 naye paise)
• 1 pavala = 4 anna, or 1/4 rupee (later 25 naye paise)
• 1 beda = 2 anna, or 1/8 rupee (later equivalent to 12.5 naye paise)
• 1 anna = 1/16 rupee (later equivalent to 6.25 naye paise)
• 1 paraka = 1/2 anna (later equivalent to 3.125 naye paise)
• 1 kani (pice) = 1/4 anna (later equivalent to 1.5625 naye paise)
• 1 damari (pie) = 1/12 anna (later equivalent to 0.520833 naye paise)

1 rupee=16 anna Athanni (dheli)= ½ rupee Chawanni= ¼ rupee Dawanni = 1/8 rupee Anna/Ekanni = 1/16 rupee Taka/Adhanni= 1/32 rupee Paisa= 1/64 rupee Dhela = 1/128 rupee ( ½ paisa) Paisa=3 pie =1/192 rupee Paisa=4 Damari= 1/256 rupee. * addition

In 1957, the rupee was decimalised and divided into 100 naye paise (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial "naye" was dropped. Many still refer to 25, 50 and 75 paise as 4, 8 and 12 annas respectively, similar to the usage of "two bits" in American English for a quarter-dollar.

Straits Settlements

The Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company. The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Settlements by the time the British arrived during the 19th century; however, the East India Company tried to replace it with the rupee. This attempt was resisted by the locals; by 1867 (when the British government took over direct control of the Straits Settlements from the East India Company), attempts to introduce the rupee were finally abandoned.

International use

With the Partition the Pakistani rupee came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply overstamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including Aden, Oman, Dubai, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, the Seychelles and Mauritius.

The Indian government introduced the Gulf rupee - also known as the Persian Gulf rupee (XPGR) - as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959. The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it - Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the United Arab Emirates in 1971) - replaced the Gulf rupee with their own currencies. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 and 1965, respectively.

The Bhutanese ngultrum is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The Nepalese rupee is pegged at INR0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Nepal, except INR500 and INR1000 banknotes, which are not legal tender in Nepal and is banned by the Government of Nepal. Sri Lanka's rupee is not currently related to that of India; it is pegged to the US dollar.

Recently Zimbabwe added the Indian Rupee as a legal tender to be used.

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Coins

East India Company, 1835

The three Presidencies established by the British East India Company (Bengal, Bombay and Madras) each issued their own coinages until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to ¹/₈- and ¹/₁₆-rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-pie, ¹/₂-, one- and two-paise coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, ¹/₄-, ¹/₂-, 1-, 1¹/₂-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paisa, with the first two denominated as ¹/₂ and one dub (or ¹/₉₆ and ¹/₄₈) rupee. Madras also issued the Madras fanam until 1815.

All three Presidencies issued gold mohurs and fractions of mohurs including ¹/₁₆, ¹/₂, ¹/₄ in Bengal, ¹/₁₅ (a gold rupee) and ¹/₃ (pancia) in Bombay and ¹/₄, ¹/₃ and ¹/₂ in Madras.

In 1835, a single coinage for the EIC was introduced. It consisted of copper ¹/₁₂, ¹/₄ and ¹/₂ anna, silver ¹/₄, ¹/₃ and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper ¹/₂ pice in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the Company had been taken over by the Crown.

Regal issues, 1862-1947

In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the portrait of Queen Victoria and the designation "India". Their denominations were ¹/₁₂ anna, ¹/₂ pice, ¹/₄ and ¹/₂ anna (all in copper), 2 annas, ¹/₄, ¹/₂ and one rupee (silver), and five and ten rupees and one mohur (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no ¹/₂-anna coins were issued after 1877.

In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a cupro-nickel one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918-1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck gold sovereigns and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The ¹/₁₂ anna and ¹/₂ pice ceased production, the ¹/₄ anna was changed to a bronze, holed coin, cupro-nickel and nickel-brass ¹/₂-anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce some one- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 percent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel ¹/₄-, ¹/₂- and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of George VI, King and Emperor on the obverse and an Indian tiger on the reverse.

Independent predecimal issues, 1950-1957

India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in 1 pice, ¹/₂, one and two annas, ¹/₄, ¹/₂ and one-rupee denominations. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-pice (which was bronze, but not holed).

Independent decimal issues, 1957-

The first decimal-coin issues in India consisted of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 naye paise, and 1 rupee. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5 & 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed chawanni; 25 naye paise equals 4 annas), 50 naye paise (also called athanni; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee coins were nickel. In 1964, the word naya(e) was removed from all coins. Between 1964 and 1967, aluminium one-, two-, three-, five- and ten-paise coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass 20-paise coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the 25- and 50-paise and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel two-rupee coins were introduced. In 1988 stainless steel 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and 5-rupee coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from brass, are being minted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two- and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-(chawanni) paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise - nicknamed athanni - one, two, five and ten rupees, with the new rupee symbol) were put into circulation in 2011. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five and ten rupees. Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (athanni) coin is rarely seen in circulation.

The coins are minted at the four locations of the India Government Mint. The INR1, INR2, and INR5 coins have been minted since independence. Coins minted with the "hand picture" were minted from 2005 onwards.

Special coins

After independence, the Government of India mint, minted coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In year 2010 and 2011 for the first time ever INR75, INR150 and INR1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the Reserve Bank of India, the 150th birth anniversary of Rabindra Nath Tagore and 1000 years of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, respectively. In 2012 a INR60 coin was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. INR100 coin was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi's return to India.

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Banknotes

The design of banknotes is approved by the central government, on the recommendation of the central board of the Reserve Bank of India. Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in Nashik, the Bank Note Press in Dewas, the Bharatiya Note Mudra Nigam (P) presses at Salboni and Mysore and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Hoshangabad.

The current series of banknotes (which began in 1996) is known as the Mahatma Gandhi series. Banknotes are issued in the denominations of INR5, INR10, INR20, INR50, INR100, INR500 and INR1000. The printing of INR5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009. ATMs usually distribute INR100, INR500 and INR1,000 notes. The zero rupee note is not an official government issue, but a symbol of protest; it is printed (and distributed) by an NGO in India.

British India

In 1861, the government of India introduced its first paper money: INR10 notes in 1864, INR5 notes in 1872, INR10,000 notes in 1899, INR100 notes in 1900, 50-rupee notes in 1905, 500-rupee notes in 1907 and 1000-rupee notes in 1909. In 1917, 1- and 2¹/₂-rupee notes were introduced. The Reserve Bank of India began banknote production in 1938, issuing INR2, INR5, INR10, INR50, INR100, INR1,000 and INR10,000 notes while the government continued issuing INR1 notes.

Independent issues since 1949

After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of the king. The government continued issuing the INR1note, while the Reserve Bank issued other denominations (including the INR5,000 and INR10,000 notes introduced in 1949). During the 1970s, INR20 and INR50 notes were introduced; denominations higher than INR100 were demonetised in 1978. In 1987 the 500-rupee note was introduced, followed by the INR1,000 note in 2000. INR1 and INR2 notes were discontinued in 1995.

In September 2009, the Reserve Bank of India decided to introduce polymer banknotes on a trial basis. Initially, 100 crore (1 billion) pieces of polymer INR10 notes will be introduced. According to Reserve Bank officials, the polymer notes will have an average lifespan of five years (four times that of paper banknotes) and will be difficult to counterfeit; they will also be cleaner than paper notes.

Current banknotes

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Banknotes

The Mahatma Gandhi series of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with INR10 and INR500 banknotes. At present, the RBI issues banknotes in denominations from INR5 to INR1,000. The printing of INR5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

As of January 2012, the new 'INR' sign has been incorporated into banknotes in denominations of INR10, INR20, INR50, INR100, INR500 and INR1,000. In January, 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015.

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Languages

Each banknote has its amount written in 17 languages. On the obverse, the denomination is written in English and Hindi. On the reverse is a language panel which displays the denomination of the note in 15 of the 22 official languages of India. The languages are displayed in alphabetical order. Languages included on the panel are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

Minting

The Government of India has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the five India Government Mints at Mumbai, Alipore (Kolkata), Saifabad (Hyderabad), Cherlapally (Hyderabad) and NOIDA (UP).

The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act.

Security features

The main security features of current banknotes are:

• Watermark -- White side panel of notes has Mahatma Gandhi watermark.
• Security thread -- All notes have a silver or green security band with inscriptions (visible when held against light) of Bharat in Hindi and "RBI" in English.
• Latent image -- On notes of denominations of INR20 and upwards, a vertical band on the right side of the Mahatma Gandhi's portrait contains a latent image showing the respective denominational value numerally (visible only when the note is held horizontally at eye level).
• Microlettering -- Numeral denominational value is visible under magnifying glass between security thread and latent image.
• Intaglio - On notes with denominations of INR5 and upwards the portrait of Mahatma Gandhi, the Reserve Bank seal, guarantee and promise clause, Ashoka Pillar Emblem on the left and the RBI Governor's signature are printed in intaglio (raised print).
• Identification mark -- On the left of the watermark window, different shapes are printed for various denominations INR20: vertical rectangle, INR50: square, INR100: triangle, INR500: circle, INR1,000: diamond). This also helps the visually impaired to identify the denomination.
• Fluorescence -- Number panels glow under ultraviolet light.
• Optically variable ink -- Notes of INR500 and INR1,000 denominations have their numerals printed in optically variable ink. The number appears green when the note is held flat, but changes to blue when viewed at an angle.
• See-through register - Floral designs printed on the front and the back of the note coincide and perfectly overlap each other when viewed against light.
• EURion constellation - A pattern of symbols found on the banknote helps software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image, preventing its reproduction with devices such as colour photocopiers.

Convertibility

Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the RBI trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a de facto controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "managed float". Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of floating exchange rates, and often create persistent arbitrage opportunities against the RBI. Unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.

Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, foreign nationals are forbidden from importing or exporting rupees; Indian nationals can import and export only up to INR7,500 at a time, and the possession of INR500 and INR1,000 rupee notes in Nepal is prohibited. In 2014 India allowed to take INR500 and INR1000 rupee notes to be taken to Nepal

RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to intervention (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have convertibility to bring money into and out of the country and buy securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms are able to take capital out of the country in order to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full de facto convertibility.

There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity; therefore, money cannot be changed into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

"As per Section 26 of Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions.The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement which means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount."

Chronology

• 1991 - India began to lift restrictions on its currency. A number of reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments and remittances and some capital asset-based transactions). Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a dual-exchange-rate system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.
• 1997 - A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the 1997-1998 East Asian financial crisis.
• 2006 - Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the Finance Minister and the Reserve Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.

Exchange rates

Historic exchange rates

For almost a century since the Great Recoinage of 1816 until the outbreak of World War I, the Indian rupee sustained parity with the U.S. dollar while pegged to the pound sterling that was exchanged at INR4.80 (or 50 old pence per rupee).

Thereafter, both the rupee and the sterling gradually declined in worth against the U.S. dollar due to deficits in trade, capital and budget. In 1966, the rupee was devalued and pegged to the dollar. The peg to the pound was at INR13.33 to a pound (approx. 40 rupees to £3), and the pound itself was pegged to US$4.03. That means officially speaking the USD to INR rate would be closer to INR4. In 1966, India changed the peg to dollar at INR7.50.

Indian subcontinent exchange rates

The Indian subcontinent or the subcontinent is the southern region of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean. Definitions of the extent of the Indian subcontinent differ but it usually includes the core lands of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh;[1] Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan are often included as well.

Banknotes and coins in circulation

As of 2014 banknotes of the denominations of INR5, INR10, INR20, INR50, INR100, INR500 and INR1000 are in circulation; coins with face-value of 50 paise, INR1, INR2, INR5 and INR10 rupees. This is excluding the commemorative coins minted for special occasions.

Current exchange rates

See also

• Coins of British India
• Modern Indian coins

References

External links

• A gallery of all Indian currency issues
• "Gallery of Indian Rupee Notes introduced till date". Reserve Bank of India. Retrieved January 9, 2015. 
• Media related to Rupee (India) at Wikimedia Commons

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